http://www.articletrader.com/ Articles at ArticleTrader en-us http://www.articletrader.com/science/artificial-reefs-gain-popularity.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/artificial-reefs-gain-popularity.html Sun, 02 Aug 2009 16:30:11 -0500
Artificial reefs are becoming more widely accepted as environmentally friendly havens for scuba divers, and the movement just received a major shot in the arm with the recent establishment of the second largest artificial reef in Key West, FL, according to one expert.

"Artificial reefs for recreational purposes are a complete win-win for divers, sea life and the environment," said Charlie Hudson, author of the book Islands in the Sand: An Introduction to Artificial Reefs in the USA from Booklocker.com (www.charliehudson.net). "With the sinking of the 521-foot-long General Hoyt S Vandenberg, intentionally sunk in 137 feet of water some seven miles south of Key West, enthusiasts of artificial reefs have something more to be excited about."

Located in the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, the 65-year-old vessel is now the world's second-largest artificial reef. It's part of the "Florida Keys Shipwreck Trek" which consists of several ships intentionally sunk in an area stretching from Key Largo to Key West.

Hudson, who has studied the history of planned artificial reefs back to their beginnings in the 1800s, believes that the future of artificial reefs is brighter than it's ever been.

"Artificial reefs have long since transcended the days of the many ‘accidental' ones created by shipwrecks," Hudson said. "Many reefs are built by deploying existing materials in order to create a reef. This can be done by sinking oil rigs (through the Rigs-to-Reefs program), scuttling ships, or by deploying rubble, or construction debris. Other artificial reefs are purpose built (e.g. the Reefballs™) from concrete or other approved materials. Regardless of construction method, artificial reefs are generally designed to provide hard surfaces to which algae and invertebrates such as barnacles, corals, and oysters attach; the accumulation of attached marine life in turn provides intricate structure and food for assemblages of fish."

Hudson believes that artificial reefs also help preserve living reefs that have been damaged over the years by divers.

"Natural reefs taking hundreds of years to form and even a little incidental damage by visitors can take hundreds of years to heal," she said. "Artificial reefs help protect natural ones by providing interesting scenery for divers and a solid structure for algae to form, providing food and an eco-system for sea life."

For practical purposes, artificial reef projects began in the 1950s and gained attention in the 1980s, according to Hudson. Artificial reef projects can be as complex and expensive as sinking a former aircraft carrier or something like a Reefball™ or other special structure done by a small group in a matter of a weekend.

"Recreational artificial reefs can be properly planned and sustained for public enjoyment and economic benefits with no environmental danger," Hudson added. "More than that, people at literally every age and literally every part of the country can participate in artificial reef projects. It's one of the oldest ‘green' causes around, and it makes it possible for every to not only pitch in, but also to enjoy."

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Charlotte "Charlie" Kimball Hudson, born in Pine Bluff, Ark., and raised in Louisiana, is a 22-year career military veteran and wife, freelance writer and author. During her extensive military career Hudson was deployed to Saudi Arabia for Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm and to Haiti in support of Operation Uphold Democracy. She retired from the Army in 1995 as a lieutenant colonel. She and her husband, Hugh Hudson, recently moved to South Florida where they can enjoy their love of scuba diving.

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> http://www.articletrader.com/science/why-buy-geography-learning-tools-online.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/why-buy-geography-learning-tools-online.html Thu, 16 Jul 2009 19:45:19 -0500
Here are three reasons why this is a good idea:

1. The biggest selection. If you want to make the most out of your learning environment you need the right tools. This is why you should be shopping online. If something is available you will be able to find it online.

2. The best prices. Why spend more than you have to on geography learning tools? As you can imagine, a world globe or classroom wall map is going to be much more affordable online than at a local specialty store. If you don't believe this, you should at least compare prices to see how much you can save.

3. The online stores that sell geography learning tools also offer other information that may be help to you and your students. The more you can learn about this subject the better you will be as a teacher or student.

Now do you see why buying geography products online is a good idea? If you are in the market for anything from a globe to a map to workbooks, you need to use the internet to your advantage.

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http://www.geographystoreonline.com/ offers a great selection of geography maps, student atlases and world globes for your classroom needs. From the best beginner maps, primary maps, and classroom wall maps to globes, for schools and geography reference, we are your experts.

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> http://www.articletrader.com/science/what-is-creationism.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/what-is-creationism.html Tue, 07 Jul 2009 19:49:47 -0500
It is feasible that there are hundreds of contrasting theories to answer this question - but as we all understand only one of them is able to be correct. One of the more popular is the possibility of Intelligent Design also best-known as Creationism. This is the opinion that God - an intelligent being made the Earth and everything that is in it.

This opinion is established on The Bible - which goes back hundreds of years and was composed by dozens of authors. This book tells us in detail that God created the Earth, plants, solar system, animals, and eventually man in merely six days before resting on the seventh day.

The one point that differentiates this theory from many others is that there is no scientific validation to back it up. Which is why so many scientists do not think that it can be true. In their occupation everything is able to be explained through science or it merely is not correct or even real. However, according to Christians this whole theory of Creationism is based not upon science but on faith.

They do not need facts and fossils to show them that Intelligent Design is the reason of how the Earth was made. Though many of their beliefs come from a book they consider this to be real and that God still does numerous things in our lives today.

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Learn the difference between Creationism And Evolution and why people have a hard time trying to Teach Intelligent Design.


Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> http://www.articletrader.com/science/glycerol-production--reviews-in-this-recent-development-in-restorable-energy.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/glycerol-production--reviews-in-this-recent-development-in-restorable-energy.html Fri, 26 Jun 2009 01:39:24 -0500
Gasoline and diesel belong to the non-renewable type of energy. Simply put, these are resources which cannot be readily replenished, or resources which have a limited supply. The main sources of energy in the world today are coal, oil and natural gas which are called fossil fuels. Unfortunately, fossils fuels are non-renewable. The extraction of fossil fuels from the earth turns out to be more difficult since they are becoming scarcer yet the demand is only becoming more urgent since these fossil fuels are used in nearly all industries from the largest to the smallest.

Therefore the renewable forms of energy have been the topic of many studies and discussions. Innovations in renewable energy generation are taking in the spotlight and seemingly unlikely sources of renewable energy are becoming the newest trend. Among this is glycerol, a byproduct of saponification or the process of soap making and transesterification or the production of biodiesel. Glycerol can be accounted for 10% of the byproducts of biodiesel production. Glycerol is also known by its more commercial terms of glycerin and glycerine.

One of the investigations focusing on glycerol was the one conducted by the researchers at the Oxford University. This group of scientists was able to generate biofuel from glycerol, which is considered to be a waste byproduct in many industries. They have designed a method which turns glycerol into methanol. The process uses metal catalyst to separate the methanol. Today, methanol is mostly derived from natural gas. It is used extensively in industrial chemistry.

Another study was one from the Department of Chemical and Environment Engineering at the University of California, Riverside. The process they have developed was one which combined excess glycerin and excess biomass from biodiesel production to produce flammable pellets for use as an alternative to coal.

A study from the Rice University explored the potential of fermenting glycerol to produce ethanol. Since for each gallon of biodiesel produces approximately 0.75 lb of glycerol, this would be a very practical way to produce energy. The use of microorganisms in the fermentation is the unique feature of this research. The Klebsiella and Citrobacter are glycerol-fermenting species of bacteria while E. coli synthesize glycerol through a respiratory pathway.

One study by the controversial and award-winning Galen Suppes, a chemical engineering professor at the University of Missouri, has come up with a procedure to convert glycerine into propylene glycol. Propylene glycol can be used as an alternative to ethylene propyl. Ethylene propyl is used as antifreeze for cars and other automobiles. It is derived from petroleum and is a toxic chemical. Propylene glycol, on the other hand, is a safe and sustainable substitute.

Biodiesel production has resulted to a large surplus of glycerine. Though glycerine is used in nearly all industries, its use for sustainable energy is a relatively new concept but one which has attracted a lot of attention. Glycerol has a lot of potential in the renewable energy industry because it is inexpensive and economically-sound. Moreover, it has beneficial environmental impacts since it help cut down on the emissions of oxides of nitrogen in the atmosphere, reducing air pollution and its associated effects.

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Jo is a writer for

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> http://www.articletrader.com/science/montana-schools-open-to-all-student-victims-of-katrina.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/montana-schools-open-to-all-student-victims-of-katrina.html Thu, 25 Jun 2009 16:55:23 -0500
In the wake of Hurricane Katrina, Montana schools may experience the arrival of students leaving the aftermath of destruction. I know Montana schools will open their doors to welcome and help out these students,said Superintendent McCulloch. Schools should treat such students as ‘homeless students' to qualify for federal assistance programs. It is likely that these students will lack school and immunization records. Some will arrive without parents and be living with relatives or friends. The lack of records should not hinder any such student from enrolling immediately. OPI is working with other state education agencies in the Hurricane area to obtain this information.

The federal McKinney-Vento Act defines homeless children and youth as Children and youth who lack a fixed, regular and adequate nighttime residence, including children and youth who are: sharing the housing of other persons due to the loss of housing, economic hardship, or a similar reason. In compliance with this Act, children rendered homeless by the hurricane must be enrolled immediately and placed as appropriately as possible with verbal information from the parent and/or student.

As a homeless child or youth they automatically qualify for and are entitled to all of the federally funded programs offered in a school or district. This includes all of the TITLE Programs as well as IDEA and school lunch programs, noted McCulloch.
Families hosting ‘Katrina refugees may also qualify for free or reduced cost meal programs through the federal Food and Nutrition Service, explained Superintendent McCulloch.

In cases where a household from a designated disaster area moves in with another household, the displaced individuals may be considered homeless and consequently automatically eligible for free meals. The host family will have to apply to be eligible for free or reduced price meal benefits

If there are questions regarding an issue with a child or youth enrolling in and attending class in a district please contact your District Homeless Liaison or contact Terry Teichrow, State Coordinator for the Education of Homeless Children and Youth at 406-444-2036 or tteichrow@mt.gov.

The U.S. Department of Education is asking the Office of Public Instruction to keep track of the numbers of those children and youth who come into Montana. Please keep us informed, by e-mail, of the numbers and status of any students enrolling because of Hurricane Katrina, concluded Superintendent McCulloch. I would like to thank all students and schools who are participating in hundreds of local relief activities to aid the victims of this national disaster.


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Mcmillan is an expert author, who is presently working on the site Katrina Stories. He has written many articles in various topics. For more information about Katrina Aftermath. Visit our site katrinanewsonline.com


Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> http://www.articletrader.com/science/earthquake-facts-history.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/earthquake-facts-history.html Thu, 25 Jun 2009 14:37:21 -0500
2.The largest recorded earthquake in the world was a magnitude 9.5 (Mw) in Chile on May 22, 1960.

3.The earliest reported earthquake in California was felt in 1769 by the exploring expedition of Gaspar de Portola while the group was camping about 48 kilometers (30 miles) southeast of Los Angeles.

4. Before electronics allowed recordings of large earthquakes, scientists built large spring-pendulum seismometers in an attempt to record the long-period motion produced by such quakes. The largest one weighed about 15 tons. There is a medium-sized one three stories high in Mexico City that is still in operation.

5. The average rate of motion across the San Andreas Fault Zone during the past 3 million years is 56 mm/yr (2 in/yr). This is about the same rate at which your fingernails grow. Assuming this rate continues, scientists project that Los Angeles and San Francisco will be adjacent to one another in approximately 15 million years.

6. The East African Rift System is a 50-60 km (31-37 miles) wide zone of active volcanics and faulting that extends north-south in eastern Africa for more than 3000 km (1864 miles) from Ethiopia in the north to Zambezi in the south. It is a rare example of an active continental rift zone, where a continental plate is attempting to split into two plates which are moving away from one another.

7. The first "pendulum seismoscope" to measure the shaking of the ground during an earthquake was developed in 1751, and it wasn't until 1855 that faults were recognized as the source of earthquakes.

8. Moonquakes ("earthquakes" on the moon) do occur, but they happen less frequently and have smaller magnitudes than earthquakes on the Earth. It appears they are related to the tidal stresses associated with the varying distance between the Earth and Moon. They also occur at great depth, about halfway between the surface and the center of the moon.

9. Although both are sea waves, a tsunami and a tidal wave are two different unrelated phenomenona. A tidal wave is a shallow water wave caused by the gravitational interactions between the Sun, Moon, and Earth. A tsunami is a sea wave caused by an underwater earthquake or landslide (usually triggered by an earthquake) displacing the ocean water.

10. The hypocenter of an earthquake is the location beneath the earth's surface where the rupture of the fault begins. The epicenter of an earthquake is the location directly above the hypocenter on the surface of the earth.

11. The greatest mountain range is the Mid-Ocean Ridge, extending 64,374 km (40,000 mi) from the Arctic Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean, around Africa, Asia, and Australia, and under the Pacific Ocean to the west coast of North America. It has a greatest height of 4207 m (13,800 ft) above the base ocean depth.

12. The world's greatest land mountain range is the Himalaya-Karakoram. It countains 96 of the world's 109 peaks of over 7317 m (24,000 ft). The longest range is the Andes of South America which is 7564 km (4700 mi) in length. Both were created bythe movement of tectonic plates.

13. It is estimated that there are 500,000 detectable earthquakes in the world each year. 100,000 of those can be felt, and 100 of them cause damage.

14. It is thought that more damage was done by the resulting fire after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake than by the earthquake itself.

15. A seiche (pronounced SAYSH) is what happens in the swimming pools of Californians during and after an earthquake. It is "an internal wave oscillating in a body of water" or, in other words, it is the sloshing of the water in your swimming pool, or any body of water, caused by the ground shaking in an earthquake. It may continue for a few moments or hours, long after the generating force is gone. A seiche can also be caused by wind or tides.

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Mcmillan is an expert author, who is presently working on the site Indonesia tsunami. He has written many articles in various topics. For more information about natural disaster. Visit our site acehtsunami.com


Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> http://www.articletrader.com/science/eco-tourism.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/eco-tourism.html Mon, 22 Jun 2009 06:59:39 -0500
Disturbing forecast are inclusive of doomsday circumstances like flooding, increasing of sea level, chaotic as well as devastating critical weather which causes failure of crops and the water borne infection is spread widely and due to over exposure of UV, the skin cancer can be caused. Like these frightening situations have too much of chances to turn in to reality, in our life span, if our consumption of energy as well as emissions of pollution aren't sincerely limited.

The industry of aviation is considered to be rapid developing resource of climate altering green house gases and well Britain is actually accountable for further discharge from the air travels than the other nation. All of us adore travelling, however by keeping these realities in our minds, it is turning to be complicated by imaging to fly off on well deserved foreign vacation having no severe reason for concern. But the developing industry of ecological and ethical sustainable tourism provides exciting, diverse, adventurous vacations that could decline impact or also be advantageous to the surrounding instead of wasting the resources as well as causing damage. Guided cycling and walking trips, for example, are considered to be a fine mode to view spectacular landscapes as well as gain more knowledge regarding plants and wild life while detonating to the localised country in a dependable, fairly way.

Solar powered and independent B&BS are bouncing in the dreamy destination such as Normandy and Portugal. Are you searching for something which is even more adventurous? Then what do you thing about the cross nation skiing which is in Norway or dog sledding which is in Finland or else sea kayaking as well as diving - off Croatia. There're countless inspirational places in Europe that could be reached easily by train or sea or else through Euro-star. One night in the cabin of the ferry which is heading to Scandinavia or else could opt for the luxurious and most comfy train hotels that cover Spain, Italy, Switzerland, France and many other places could be an thrilling, exciting experience getting back few traditional romance while travelling. Extensive haul over land travel pays for distinctive chances to view this world, just two things you need, one is a backpack as well as tent, you are all set for this trip, you can go any where you want in the way. Anywhere means you could just go about anywhere. There exists also the adventure travel company which provides twelve weeks overland trip throughout the twenty countries, say from London - Sydney.


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Eco tourism, sustainable living isn't considered to be too expensive, in fact you might be really astonished by the inferior financial expense for living in an inferior environment impact. To know more about Eco - Tourism, you can refer http://www.EarthAttic.com/blog/main or http://www.EarthAttic.com/dignews/

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> http://www.articletrader.com/science/some-potential-bad-health-effects-of-glycerol.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/some-potential-bad-health-effects-of-glycerol.html Mon, 22 Jun 2009 01:33:03 -0500
Suddenly we have lots of supplement products that contain glycerol. There are protein bars and nutrition bars which contain about 20 grams of the compound, perhaps higher in some. This has somehow alerted the experts in food and drug industry. But what really is this substance and how does it affect the health?

Glycerol is what one gets during soap making in a popular process with a less popular name of saponification, which would only interest someone who is adept in the field of chemistry. Nevertheless, saponification is why you are enjoying your soaps and detergents today. This process releases the compound as a by-product. Of course, there are more ways of acquiring the substance. One is biodiesel production.

One of the notable and most important properties of the substance is its water-absorbing or moisture absorbing characteristic. In chemistry terms it is said to be hygroscopic. This property makes it quite useful in many products like food, cosmetics, skin care and medicine. Lotions and creams contain this compound because of its moisture-retaining benefits. Hand-made soaps also contain lots of it. That is why these soaps are to be moisturizing soaps.

Nutrition bars contain certain amounts of the substance to make them soft and chewable, unless buyers fancy rock hard protein bars. These nutrition/protein bars are supposed to be low carbohydrate supplements. But if food and drug experts say that glycerol is a sugar alcohol then it belongs to the carbohydrate group and must be included in the calculation of the total amount of carbohydrate in those supplement bars or any food product for that matter. This creates a controversy because some promoters of these supplement bars argue that the compound should never be classified as a carbohydrate because it differs from most carbohydrates in function and structure.

It only was classified as a carbohydrate because there was nowhere else to place it under. There are three classes of macronutrients namely proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Now, it cannot be placed under proteins because it has no amine group. It cannot be placed under fats because it has no fatty acid molecule. So experts classified it under carbohydrates.

Perhaps the only similarity it shares with other sugars is the sweetness. Other than that there is nothing quite similar between it and other sugars. For instance, the hygroscopic nature is not a property of sugars. Sugars do not absorb water or moisture.

When this sugar alcohol enters the body, there are a few possible pathways. According to some research, it can participate in the synthesis or production of glucose, though it fails to raise blood sugar levels to a considerable degree and it does not stimulate significant insulin production. This is why it is generally difficult to accept for some that it is a carbohydrate. Another path could be that the compound would be incorporated again into fats in the body, since it actually serves as a core molecule of fats, triglycerides. Another possible path would be to the synthesis of phosphoglycerides, which is found in lipid bilayer of cell membranes. Another path would be direct excretion in the urine.

According to some researchers the hygroscopic nature of the compound is beneficial to delay dehydration in athletes during strenuous activity. It is not absolutely clear how the compound affects the body. There is still not enough research that validates whether or not it is bad for the health. Nevertheless, the compound remains to be one of the most important and most versatile industrial chemicals.

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Jo is a content writer for

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> http://www.articletrader.com/science/strengthening-of-infrastructure.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/strengthening-of-infrastructure.html Thu, 18 Jun 2009 15:00:25 -0500
This job consisted of 59 separate creation projects, carried out by 26 Corps contractors 90% of them local. The company continues to construct stronger protection for New Orleans by engineering, constructing and improving hurricane and flood protection infrastructure to a 100 year protection level. This work includes advanced levees, stronger floodwalls and larger interior drainage capacity, including:
Replacing failed I Wall intend floodwalls with stronger Twall or L wall design floodwalls.

Reinforce the most vulnerable unharmed I Walls and the surge protection closures.
In order to look into the levee breakage and prevent them from reoccurring, the company commissioned an Interagency Performance Evaluation Task Force (IPET) composed of 150 subject matter expert from government, academia and industry to analyze the effects of Hurricane Katrina on the hurricane protection system and to increase a list of lessons learned which are leading to state of the art improvements in the engineering of a comprehensive hurricane protection system.

IPET findings and recommendations have been frequently provided to the Corps' task force since November 2005 and have been used to construct levee repairs stronger and better. IPET findings helped the company in the assessment of weaknesses in the protection system and IPET results will also be used in plan guidance to build future protection projects.


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Mcmillan is an expert author, who is presently working on the site Katrina Victims. He has written many articles in various topics. For more information about New Orleans Katrina. Visit our site katrinanewsonline.com


Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> http://www.articletrader.com/science/pre-historic-art.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/pre-historic-art.html Thu, 18 Jun 2009 14:59:24 -0500
The earliest figurine yet discovered come from between 500,000 and 300,000 BC, during the Middle Acheulean period. Discovered in Morocco, it is about 6 centimeters long. Evidence suggests that this Moroccan piece may have been created by natural geological processes with a minimum of human tool-work, but the piece bears evidence of having been painted; "a greasy substance" on the stone's surface has been shown to contain iron and manganese and indicates that it was decorated by someone and used as a figurine, regardless of how it may have been formed.

Discoveries in Blombos cave, situated in South Africa, have totally changed the history of art. Stones were discovered that were decorated with complex red arrays, showing that early Homo Sapiens Sapiens were capable of abstraction and production of art. These impressive works date back from 70,000 years ago i.e. more than 50,000 years compared to Lascaux in France.

Venus of WillendorfThe earliest known European art is from the upper palaeolithic period and includes both cave painting, such as the famous paintings at Lascaux, and portable art, such as animal carvings and so-called Venus figurines like the Venus of Willendorf.

There are some speculations that only Homo sapiens is capable of artistic expression. However, Homo erectus had long before produced seemingly aimless patterns on artifacts such as is those found at Bilzingsleben in Thuringia, and these might be understood as a precursor to art, as well as to reveal some intent of the artificer to decorate, to fashion beyond practical necessity.

The symmetry and attention given to the shape of a tool has led authors to see middle palaeolithic hand axes and especially laurel points as artistic expressions as well. The Venus of Berekhat Ram (Israel) and its counterpart in Morocco, the Venus of Tan-Tan, from 800,000 and 220,000 BC, may be the earliest attempts to recreate the human form. A recent find, the Mask of La Roche-Cotard in France, now suggests that Neanderthal humans may have developed a sophisticated and more complicated artistic tradition.

Drawing of bracelets from Mousterian period.Later findings from terrains of Ukraine (Mizyn archeological site) dated from Mousterian epoch of Paleolithic are Mammoth ivory bracelets with carved meander ornaments.

Mesolithic

The Mesolithic period has some examples of portable art, like painted pebbles (Azilien) from Birseck, Eremitage in Switzerland, and in some areas, like the Spanish Levant, stylized rock art. Patterns on utilitarian objects, like the paddles from Tybrind Vig, Denmark, are known as well.

Neolithic

According to archeological evidence, the Jomon people in ancient Japan were the first to develop pottery, dating to the 11th millennium BC. The Jomon people were making clay figures and vessels decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks with a growing sophistication. See Jomon.

Free standing sculpture had already begun by the Neolithic, the earliest being the anthropomorphic figurines, often embellished by animals from the very beginning of the Neolithic discovered in Nevali Cori and G?bekli Tepe near Urfa in eastern Turkey, dating to ca. 10th millennium BC. The mesolithic statues of Lepenski Vir at the Iron Gorge, Serbia and Montenegro date to the 7th millennium BC and represent either humans or mixtures of humans and fish.

In Central Europe, many neolithic cultures, like Linearbandkeramic, Lengyel and Vinca, produced female (rarely male) and animal statues that can be called art. Whether the elaborate pottery decoration of, for example, the ?eliesovce and painted Lengyel style are to be classified as art is a matter of definition.

Megalithic monuments are found in the Neolithic from Portugal to the British isles and Poland. They start in the 5th Millennium BC, though some authors speculate on mesolithic roots. Because of frequent reuse, this is difficult to prove.

While the most well-known of these is Stonehenge, where the main structures date from the early Bronze age, such monuments have been found throughout most of Western and Northern Europe, notably at Carnac, France, at Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands, in Portugal, and in Wiltshire, England, the area of Stonehenge, the Avebury circle, the tombs at West Kennet, and Woodhenge.

One tomb found in New Grange, Ireland, has its entrance marked with a massive stone carved with a complex design of spirals. The tomb of Knowth has rock-cut ornaments as well; one of them may be the oldest known image of the Moon. Many of these monuments were megalithic tombs, and archaeologists speculate that most have religious significance.

Bronze Age

During the 3rd millennium BC, however, the Bronze Age began in Europe, bringing with it a new medium for art. The increased efficiency of bronze tools also meant an increase in productivity, which led to a surplus - the first step in the creation of a class of artisans. Because of the increased wealth of society, luxury goods began to be created, especially decorated weapons.

Examples include ceremonial bronze helmets, ornamental ax-heads and swords, elaborate instruments such as lurer, and other ceremonial objects without a practical purpose. Rock art, showing scenes from the daily life and religious rituals have been found in many areas, for example in Bohusl?n Sweden and the Val Carmonica in Northern Italy.

Iron Age

The Iron age saw the development of anthropomorphic sculptures, such as the warrior of Hirschlanden, and the statue from the Glauberg, Germany. Hallstatt artists in the early Iron Age favoured geometric, abstract designs perhaps influenced by trade links with the Classical world.

The more elaborate and curvilinear La T?ne artistic style developed in Europe in the later Iron Age from a centre in the Rhine valley but it soon spread across the continent. The rich chieftain classes appear to have encouraged ostentation and Classical influences such as bronze drinking vessels attest to a new fashion for wine drinking. Communal eating and drinking were an important part of Celtic society and culture and much of their art was often expressed through plates, knives, cauldrons and cups. Horses' tack and weaponry were also subjects deemed fit for elaboration. Mythical animals were a common motif along with religious and natural subjects and their depiction is a mix between the naturalistic and the stylised.

Megalithic art was still practised, examples include the carved limestone pillars of the sanctuary at Entremont in modern day France. Personal adornment included torc necklaces whilst the introduction of coinage provided a further opportunity for artistic expression. Although the coins of this period are poorly made derivatives of Greek and Roman types, the more exuberant Celtic artistic style is still visible.

The famous late fourth century BC chariot burial at Waldalgesheim in the Rhineland produced many fine examples of La T?ne art including a bronze flagon and bronze plaques with repouss? human figures. Many pieces had curvy, organic styles though to be derived from Classical tendril patterns.

In much of western Europe elements of this artistic style can be discerned surviving in the art and architecture of the Roman colonies. In areas where Roman influence was missing altogether, the later Iron age artistic tradition continued well into the historic period, perhaps most famously in Ireland and Northumbria.

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Mcmillan is an expert author, who is presently working on the site 1startclub. He has written many articles in various topics. For more information about fine art oil painting reproductions. Visit our site 1startclub.com


Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]>