Random Environment Articles http://www.articletrader.com/ Articles at ArticleTrader en-us Understanding Bacteria and Enzymes http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/understanding-bacteria-and-enzymes.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/understanding-bacteria-and-enzymes.html Thu, 13 Sep 2007 00:00:00 -0500
In the natural environment, both bacteria, and the enzymes they produce, play a significant part in biodegradation: Bacteria produce the enzymes essential for metabolizing the food source (organic waste) into energy necessary for further growth of the living organism. Enzymes facilitate the phase of metabolism in which complex compounds are broken into simpler ones (catabolism). This, in turn, speeds the process of converting the food source into an available energy supply for bacterial growth and reproduction (and continuous enzyme production).

A. BACTERIA

1. General Background
Although some bacteria may cause certain diseases, many more bacteria are not only harmless, but they actually are very beneficial. The positive influence of these numerous useful microscopic organisms in our biosphere is incalculable. For example, without bacteria, the soil would not be fertile (and all plants and animals ultimately are dependent upon soil fertility for life sustaining materials). Various species of bacteria are concerned in the decomposition of organic matter, fermentation, and the fixing of atmospheric nitrogen. Many of the common bacteria of air, soil and water are capable of digesting dead organic materials, proteins, carbohydrates, fats and grease, and cellulose breaking them down to simpler molecules and in utilizing these substances. This impressive ability of bacteria as a group to produce such a great diversity of biochemical changes and end results constitutes one of the outstanding facts of the natural world.

2. Rate of Multiplication
Given reasonable and suitable conditions for growth, the rate of asexual multiplication of bacteria is very rapid; it has been found that a cell divides every 20 to 30 minutes. So, assuming that conditions are conducive to a rate of one division every 30 minutes, a single individual cell will have produced 4 cells at the end of the first hour, 16 at the end of two hours, and about one million (1,000,000) at the end of fifteen (15) hours. Thus, when products containing millions of selected bacteria per milliliter are introduced under suitable conditions, the eventual bacterial growth is astronomical, and, by virtue of the presence of such great numbers of efficient, beneficial bacteria, the presence and growth of less productive and often harmful, naturally occurring bacteria are greatly reduced by competitive exclusion. Simply stated, the selected, introduced bacteria are more efficient and out compete the naturally occurring bacteria for the food source.

3. Conditions Affecting Growth of Bacteria

a. Food requirements. Bacteria must obtain from their environment all nutrient materials necessary for their metabolic processes and cell reproduction. The food must be in solution and must pass into the cell.

b. Temperature. For every bacterium, there 'are certain cardinal points of temperature at which growth is most rapid. Although different bacterial species differ widely, the optimum growth temperature for most bacteria lies between 5° C and 55° C (41 ° F to 131 ° F). Growth may slow at temperatures below 5°C (41 ° F) and cell damage may occur at temperatures above 60° C (140° F). The ordinary cells (non spores) are damaged at temperatures of 60° to 80° C (122° F to 140° F); hence a single boiling of a fluid or even pasteurization (application of a heat of 63° C or 145° F) is sufficient to eliminate them. Bacterial spores, however, must be subjected to very prolonged heating at higher temperatures before they are distressed.

c. pH. Each bacterium has a pH range within which growth is possible. Growth will occur in environments that have pH values between 4.5 and 10; the optimum pH value differs greatly between species but an environment kept close to neutral (pH 7) will sustain most bacterial species.

d. Moisture. Bacteria require moisture. The importance of moisture for bacterial growth will be seen clearly if it is realized that bacteria have no mouth parts and all their food must be absorbed in a soluble form by the process of diffusion through the cell wall; without sufficient moisture, therefore, the inflow of food and the outflow of excreta becomes impossible.

e. Oxygen. Bacteria of various kinds exhibit wide differences in their relation to oxygen of the air. Some need oxygen for respiration and cannot grow unless it is provided. These are known as aerobes. Others grow only in the absence of free oxygen and are unable to use it in their respiration, they are called anaerobes. Still others can grow under either condition and are termed facultative.

B. ENZYMES

1. Introduction
Bacteria exhibit great diversity in their physiological activities. The energy necessary for carrying on cell activity and the building materials needed for the formation of new cells during multiplication is secured in a variety of ways. The acquisition of energy and materials, in turn, is related in large measure to the different enzymes produced by various bacteria.

2. Examples of Enzyme Action
Many enzymes are discharged from the cells that produce them and, therefore, function outside the living cells ("extra cellular"). For example, the secretions of the digestive tract of animals contain many such extra cellular enzymes. All of the enzymes of the digestive tract act to convert the complex molecules of food into smaller, simpler molecules which are easier to take into the bacterial cell. The process of degradation is called hydrolysis. This degradation, which involves the conversion of solids into water soluble substances, and of large water soluble molecules into smaller ones, is the essence of the process of digestion.

C. SPORE FORMATION

Some bacteria are able to form spores. Spores are formed usually when conditions become unsatisfactory for active metabolism and for cell reproduction. Bacterial spores are extremely stable, and resistant to heat, drying, light, disinfectants and other harmful agents than the original vegetative bacterial organism. Spores may survive for many years.

When more suitable conditions present themselves, the spore germinates and again develops a cell similar to the one that originally formed the spore. This new cell, under favorable conditions of moisture, temperature, pH and food supply, begins active metabolism, reproduction, and enzyme production.

D. CONCLUSION

Bacteria in nature actively compete for nutrients and the most successful species in a given habitat will be those capable of best utilizing the conditions that prevail. The introduced, specially selected, beneficial, problem solving bacteria dominate the system they are added to, and safely and economically resolve problems by eliminating the source of the problem (the organic waste is broken down, digested and metabolized).

Odors are reduced by eliminating their source; and as a result, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Suspended Solids (S/S), and Volatile Fatty Acids (VFA) are reduced; and the primary byproducts of this microbial degradation are water (H20)and carbon dioxide (C02).



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BASIC DEFINITIONS

Aerobic Bacteria:
Bacteria that require the presence of oxygen to live and function.

Anaerobic Bacteria:
Bacteria that do not require the presence of oxygen to survive they are capable of living and functioning in the absence of oxygen.

Bacteria:
Any of a group of diverse, ubiquitous, microscopic single celled microorganisms.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand I(BOD):
The amount of oxygen that is required/consumed by bacteria during the digestion of the organic waste in water. BOD is a relative measure of water quality since the higher the BOD, the greater the amount of organic waste in the water. Surcharges and fines are based on the BOD levels of the wastewater.

Biodegradation:
The digestion of organic substances by biological action, a process usually involving microbes, particularly bacteria.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
The amount of oxygen that is required/consumed during the digestion of organic waste by chemical means. COD is a relative measure of water quality since the higher the COD, the greater the amount of organic material in the water.

Chemotaxis:
The ability of an organism, in this case bacteria, to detect and move toward a particular chemical. Selected bacteria exhibit positive chemotaxis and move toward higher levels of biochemical food sources. This ability is particularly advantageous when the goal is the efficient digestion of organic materials.

Colony Forming Unit I(CFU):
The standard microbiological method used to count bacteria. The number of viable cells that give rise to a colony of bacteria on a suitable agar medium.

Enzyme: (a/k/a non living chemical catalyst):
Any of various complex organic substances originating from living microorganisms, and capable of producing certain chemical changes in organic substances by catalytic action. Enzymes are the chemical catalysts of living cells.

NOTE: While bacteria metabolize a wide variety of organic material, enzymes are substrate specific. For example:

Protease enzyme catabolizes ("breaks down") protein
Amylase enzyme breaks down starch and carbohydrate
Lipase enzyme breaks down fat and grease
Xylanase enzyme breaks down plant material (xylan)
Cellulase enzyme breaks down cellulose
Urease enzyme breaks down urea

Facultative Bacteria:
Bacteria that are capable of living and functioning either in the presence of oxygen or absence of oxygen.

Microbial Degradation:
The beneficial activities selected of bacteria in carrying out biodegradation.

Motile:
Capable of motion. Selected bacteria are motile, enabling them to move about their immediate environment.

Spore:
The inactive/dormant, protected/resistant form that some bacteria can temporarily assume, when conditions are not satisfactory for active metabolism and cell reproduction.

Suspended Solids (SS): Particles of organic waste suspended in water. The levels of SS are often used to indicate water quality.

Volatile Fatty Acids I(VFA):
Volatile Fatty Acids are the compounds primarily responsible for the "sour" or "rancid" odors emanating from decaying organic material. The presence of high levels of VFA's are indicative of inefficient microbial degradation of organic waste.

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Leo is the developer of Earths Balance, an Earth friendly company leveraging the science of probiotics and other natural remedies to benefit people, pets and planet. You can learn more by visiting http://earthsbalance.com

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> Business Must Measure its 'Green' Impact, or Risk Failure http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/business-must-measure-its-green-impact-or-risk-failure.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/business-must-measure-its-green-impact-or-risk-failure.html Sun, 09 Aug 2009 10:44:48 -0500 Was this statement in reference to personal or business survival? As a human race, we are subject to extinction because of bad planet management, that is we have failed to properly manage our resources effectively to optimize our return. As a result our inventory of resources disappears or is degraded to the point of unproductive. We realize today our planet is a business struggling to survive.

For small and medium sized businesses failure is generally much quicker and more transparent. Regardless of how well managed your organization is, you may awaken one day to consumers that have realized that your business is no longer aligned with their values. For example, your customers may choose to purchase products and services exclusively from businesses that can prove their commitment to environmental and societal issues. Customers may even demand these issues are properly measured and perpetually managed as consideration for supporting your business.

So the best case is, businesses subscribe to some method of measuring their environmental responsibility and societal stewardship footprint in an effort to improve and align. The worst case is, business ignores this call to action, and finds itself extinct.

If one were to analyze the destruction humans have caused, and continue to cause each day onto our planet and then compare the small steps toward mitigation we are taking by changing a light bulb, or separating the trash for the purpose of recycling it is clear the solution isn't enough to solve the problem.

As consumers are confronted with this information through pending legislation changes, community sentiment or education, business becomes more vulnerable to changing customer priorities.

Appropriate measurement of extra financial details provides for greater visibility into the business from a holistic perspective, and may give the business a cost-of capital advantage by negotiating with "green" banks for reduced rate loans based on sustainability performance. Even if a business is not involved in eco-practices today, measured improvement in the future may lead to increased revenues and lower costs.

Measuring impact and understanding what areas of improvement within the business is not only possible, but necessary for survival.


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Dan is experienced in the fields of carbon measurement for financial markets, small business strategic sustainability scorecarding, and renewable energy asset optimization. He has authored business methods including NORDIX and Unified Sustainability Index. Previously he was director of Weather Board of Trade, a registered XBOT with the U.S. Commodities Futures Trading Commission (CFTC). Highlights of Dan's career include; transacting the first known renewable energy credit (REC) trades in both Delaware and Pennsylvania. Dan currently consults to banks and medium sized businesses about how to measure and improve their sustainability impact. He can be reached at dparker@sustainlink.net or 646.234.3337
http://www.sustainlink.net

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> Methods for Locating Oil Reservoirs http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/methods-for-locating-oil-reservoirs.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/methods-for-locating-oil-reservoirs.html Wed, 20 Jun 2007 00:00:00 -0500 Western Pipeline Corp must first determine as accurately as possible where such reservoirs of oil are located. Natural oil’s position deep within the earth makes the process of locating it challenging, and numerous techniques have been developed to help determine where to drill.

Geologists are always seeking out new ways to determine which conditions are most indicative of oil reservoirs. Surface features and surface rocks have always been a component of oil geologists’ analyses in determining the location of oil deposits. Older methods entailed analyzing the soil composition as well as rock and surface features, possibly in combination with small scale drilling. Today, the surface features remain an important part of locating oil reservoirs, though geologists also interpret data from satellite images.

A few methods are used to locate oil today, including the use of magnetometers, gravity meters and seismology. Magnetometers are instruments which measure the intensity of magnetic fields, and can provide important clues about the presence of oil. Minor changes in the Earth’s magnetic field which possibly signify the presence of flowing oil can be detected using magnetometers. Similarly, gravity meters measure small changes in the gravitational field that may suggest the presence of moving oil.

The most common method used to locate an oil reservoir is seismic survey. Seismology is a science dealing with the analysis of vibrations deep within the earth and most notably involves the study of earthquakes. Seismology helps locate oil reservoirs both on land and under water using shock waves which reflect off of surfaces at varying speeds, with the speed indicating the density of the surface. Sensitive equipment is used to detect the reflection of these shock waves, and the data is then analyzed in effort to obtain a better understanding of the types of rock lying beneath the surface.

While methods of locating oil reservoirs have improved with time and technology, a fail proof method has yet to be discovered.




--
About the Author: Bob Jent is the CEO of Western Pipeline Corporation. Western Pipeline Corp specializes in identifying, acquiring and developing existing, producing reserves on behalf of its individual clients.

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> Mystifying Indigenous People of Lapland -- Sami/Saami/Lapps http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/mystifying-indigenous-people-of-lapland-sami-saami-lapps.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/mystifying-indigenous-people-of-lapland-sami-saami-lapps.html Tue, 17 Mar 2009 13:01:37 -0500
The Sami ancestral lands span across an area the size of Sweden in the Nordic countries. The Sami people are among the largest indigenous groups in Europe.

Lapp refers to the indigenous people of Lapland, but it's a name used by outsiders. On the Kola Peninsula, they call themselves Saami, Saam or Sami. Other nations have called them Fenn (Finn), and since the twelfth century, Lapp (e.g. the form Lop’ appears in Old Russian Chronicles at about 1000 AD).

The use of the name Saam has been imposed in Russia since the 1920s and in Scandinavia within the last decades. The Sami themselves consider the name Lapp pejorative. These changes in usage have been brought largely by pressure from the Lapp community, as the term Lapp is felt by them to have strong negative overtones. Now, the people call themselves Sami.

The name Sami as Lapps appears in the Swedish language in twelfth century and most likely come from the Vikings. They used it in their settlements in the vicinities of Ladoga Lake. Earlier, they used "Finns." Sami (or Saami) is a self-given name that the Lapps of the last half of the twentietch century took on to improve their international image. The Lappish (or Sami) people most likely were formed by a merge of many ethnic groups.

In this short sketch of Sami history, it is necessary to mention that they are children of the nature, from ancient times keeping their traditional ways of life. They have not created a huge empire, did not oppress other people, and led their lives by continuous struggle against forces of the nature.

Their history within the last one and a half millennia represents, on one hand, slow deviation under the impact of other peoples; and, on the other hand, Sami have not created their independent state. Their history is compiled as a component of history of other nations and peoples having their own statehood (Norwegians, Swedes, Finns, Russian), in which an important role has been the taxation of Sami.
© Rachel Madorsky

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Rachel Madorsky.

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> The Emergent Market of e-Book Readers Contributes to Environmental Protection http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/the-emergent-market-of-e-book-readers-contributes-to-environmental-protection.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/the-emergent-market-of-e-book-readers-contributes-to-environmental-protection.html Sun, 19 Jul 2009 15:46:33 -0500
Electronic Books as an Alternative to Paper Books

Up until recently, electronic books have only been a temporary alternative to paper books. In fact, the creation of e-Books is simply another facet to improvements in digital technology and the need to reach more people more quickly. Nonetheless, developed partially as a means to obtaining a book more quickly than waiting for it to be published in paper format, eBooks were not originally intended to replace hard copies be they paper or fully bound versions in hard cover.

All of that is about to change as authors are beginning to sign on for eBook versions of their books only. Perhaps one of the most famous of these authors is Stephen King who recently agreed to an eBook-only version of his latest publication, "Riding the Bullet." His eBook-only novella has met with tremendous success and is promoting the way for other such books to follow. Once a novel, novella, magazine, newspaper, or children's story can only be read as an e-Book, the choice will be an easy one. The use of e-Book readers will become commonplace as a matter of course. According to Digital Book Readers, the changes it would provide for the people and the nature are immense and vast, and certainly worth consideration.

Benefits to Green Reading: Storage and Disposal

Since storage and disposal of e-Books is more environmentally friendly than storage and disposal of traditional books, the environment will benefit greatly from the incorporation of e-Books into daily living patterns. Not only will landfills grow at a less alarming rate, but trees will be cut down less frequently as the need for paper diminishes.

The world's forests will continue to grow while continuing to provide cleaner, oxygen-rich air. Even if these forests are allowed to grow once they have been cleared for their timber, the result is not as good as it would have been had the forest been allowed to grow. Studies have shown that older, established forests retain more carbon than their newer counterparts. Hence, the environment is better if human interaction with it changes through more responsible use of its resources.

Plus, there are other benefits to be had as well, especially where the production of traditional ink-on-paper books is concerned. Not only does the use of e-Books reduce the need to produce ink, paper, and bindings, but it also reduces the pollution associated with such activity. Moreover, e-Books are easier to transport at a lower financial and physical cost than traditional book transport.

The Facts about Paper Production of Books and Newsprint

According to the Green Press Initiative, the United States is responsible for using more than twenty million trees to produce books each and every year and that figure doesn't take into account the 95 million trees estimated to be consumed by the newsprint industry each year. As eBook reading grows in popularity, it is hoped that these numbers will be reduced significantly.

The Green Press Initiative has also stated that landfills hold a large amount of paper products to the tune of approximately one fourth of the landfill's content. As if taking up so much space isn't bad enough, the decomposition of paper products produces a highly toxic greenhouse gas known as methane gas. So not only does paper production create carbon dioxide emissions during their manufacture, but they also produce methane when they fall into a state of decay. These facts certainly point to a better world with the production of eBooks on a global level.

The Harry Potter series of books, one of the most popular series ever and enjoyed by children and adults alike, is projected to reach a total of 290,000 tons of paper in its production of more than 370,000 million books as estimated by Prime View Inrternational. At a cost of 20 trees to produce one ton of paper to be used in the manufacture of books, this comes at the high cost of 5.8 million trees.

According to the U.S. Book Industry Study Group, more than 12.4 million tons of carbon dioxide are released into the atmosphere on an annual basis due to the mass production of books in hard copy format. This boils down to almost 9 pounds of carbon per book that is produced. Talk about leaving a carbon footprint on the world! While significant changes such as increasing the use of recycled paper are being implemented, they cannot compare to the benefits that eBooks and eBook readers can produce.

According to the Green Press Initiative, many of the world's forests are becoming endangered due to the logging that continues to occur. Indonesia's tropical forests lose about 4.5 million acres each year to logging, some of it illegally culled. More than 2 million acres of Canada's Boreal Forest are logged each year with 65% of that going for paper reading and writing products. In the southeastern United States, at least 6 million acres of forests fall prey to logging companies while this area along with 26 million plantation acres is known as the largest paper producing area in the world.


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Marco Gustafsson is author of articles on eBook Readers, e-inc technology and electronic books. Discover new dimension of reading here on Digital Book Readers

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> An Overview Of Solar Energy And Other Renewable Energy Sources http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/an-overview-of-solar-energy-and-other-renewable-energy-sources.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/an-overview-of-solar-energy-and-other-renewable-energy-sources.html Wed, 09 May 2007 00:00:00 -0500
One basic benefit of renewable energy, and the reason environmentalists all over the globe are advocate its use, is that it does give off greenhouse gases and other harmful pollutants as do the by-products of burning fossil fuel for energy. Renewable energy such as solar power, water power and wind power, while the widespread discussion of which is new, are anything but new.

In both newly developing and highly developed countries wind, sun and water have long been used as power sources, though not to the extent of providing the primary energy source for large metropolitan communities.

The mass production of such renewable energy is become commonplace in recent years as more and more people come to realize how climate is changing due to the pollution of fossil fuel gases, due to the exhaustion of the availability of these fossil fuels and the political and social concerns of energy sources such as nuclear power.

Many countries and non-profit environmentally-conscious organizations are encouraging the use of renewable energy sources by passing legislation on tax incentives for their use and subsidies to offset the added expense of converting from fossil fuel to renewable energy.

The flow of renewable energy involves phenomena that occur naturally in our world. Tides, sunlight, wind and heat derived by geothermal occurrences all provide renewable energy. Each of these energy sources is unique both in where we can use them and how.

Most technology that converts renewable energy into power sources we can use are powered at least in part by the Sun if not directly at least indirectly. The earths atmospheric system stays in such equilibrium that the heat that it gives off radiates into space to an amount equal to the radiation that comes to earth from the sun.

The result of this energy level within the atmosphere is roughly translated to the climate of the earth. The water of the earth, also referred to its hydrosphere, absorbs a lot of the radiation that comes to us from the sun.

Most of the radiation gets absorbed at the lower latitudes of the earth that exist around the equator. This energy gets dissipated all around the globe, however, in the form of ocean and wind currents.

The motion of the ocean waves might have a role in transference of mechanical energy between the ocean and the earths atmosphere by way of wind stress. Solar energy also provides the means by which precipitations is distributed and then tapped by hydroelectric energy projects as well as plant growth that then creates biofuels.

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James Copper is a part time writer for PCS who offer energy assessor training for adults who wish to become a energy assessor.

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> Why the Big-Foot could be extra-terrestrial http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/why-the-big-foot-could-be-extra-terrestrial.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/why-the-big-foot-could-be-extra-terrestrial.html Fri, 01 Feb 2008 00:00:00 -0600 On the book Coming of Tan, Riley Martin accounts a unique form of alien abduction experience in which he maintains an ongoing relationship with extra terrestrials thought the decades. Surprisingly, the most compelling part of Martin’s story isn’t the alien aspect at all, but the message about humanity which was conveyed to him in a truthful way to some extent. Riley Martin has been on a number of radio and TV shows such as Howard Stern and Jerry Springer, and had his own radio show at one point, but even though he can’t really prove his case – as in many claims of alien abduction – he brings up a plausible explanation for the infamous bigfoot in his book.













Alien fit for the wild.

As Martin was supposedly informed by his alien friend-abductor, what we call the bigfoot is in fact intelligent beings from a dense jungle-like planet sent to Earth to collect samples from our forests for better understanding concerning the environment or ecological changes occurring now or in the near future of Earth.		  







This claim certainly would help explain why bigfoot always seem to vanish never to be seen again after the first sighting on a specific location. But at least, to the best of my knowledge, we have yet to see a case connecting UFOs and Bigfoot.  A Sighting of either one is rare on its own, so sighting both on the same day, would most definitely be a day to remember, and good luck getting anyone to believe you.






Mutual alien study of Earth

Taking into account that there has been numerous sightings of UFOs either dropping or taking water from lakes, and assuming UFOs and cattle mutilation are linked, arguably ETs could in fact be showing interest in our environment, as water and tissue samples from cattle can tell a lot about ecological changes, the effect of the Sun’s radiation on genes of Earth species, and the effect meat will eventually have on humans. 



Could bigfoot be alien scientists chosen for their forest-fit physique? If bigfoot are dropped off to gather data then picked up by saucers never to be seen again, are then Bigfoot researchers wasting their time?



What is easier to believe? We have undiscovered giant primates, or we have aliens walking aound our forests? Something to think about.





alien on mars over photo


Photo taken by a martian rover.

Martian Bigfoot?




I would like to get some feedback on this theory, or hear any case of UFO-Bigfoot sighting if anyone has had or heard of such thing.


--

“The mind is like a parachute. It only works when it is open.”


Source: zeoez.net Supernatural Network

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> Energy Blowing in the Wind http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/energy-blowing-in-the-wind.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/energy-blowing-in-the-wind.html Thu, 10 Jan 2008 00:00:00 -0600
Wind is the fastest growing source of power through any of the renewable energy resources and technologies. In the past ten years, the maximum capacity of wind power installed the world over went from a 1992 high of 2500 megawatts to a high of 40,000 in 2003 and continued to grow each year after that by another 30 percent. This shows no signs of abating. Due to wind being an intermittent energy resource most wind turbines in the European Union only produce an average of one fourth of the power they are actually capable of. Under favourable wind conditions, however, some reach 35 percent or more. In winter the EU realizes a higher load factor. What this means is that wind as a renewable energy in Europe typically has a capacity for 5 megawatts maximum per turbine but regularly produces 1.7 megawatts.

The long term potential for wind as a reliable renewable energy resource throughout the global is probably about five times what it currently produces and forty times what is currently demanded of it. Large pieces of land that are not now being used for wind turbines could easily do so, especially in high wind areas. The offshore areas, where wind is nearly twice as fast and dependable as that of inshore land masses could be increased substantially as renewable wind energy sources.

The strength of the wind near the surface of the earth varies considerably and scientists cannot assure that the earth would have continuous renewable wind energy there unless it was combined with other sources of energy or stored in some way. Some suggest that 1000 megawatts of the capacity for conventional wind gathering could be counted on to produce 333 megawatts of power that is continuous. This could change as our technology evolves, but most experts suggest using wind in the context of a renewable energy system that has an expansive capacity for reserving the energy. Examples of these would be hydro power, desalination plants, reserve loads and the mitigation of the economic impact of variability of resources.

Not only is wind power a renewable energy, but like other renewable energies it gives off no harmful greenhouse gases while being operated – no methane, no carbon dioxide. The one negative of wind power is that bats and birds get caught up in the turbines and get killed. Wind turbines should, therefore, be built where this impact would be least felt.

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James Copper is a writer for http://www.plumbingcareer.co.uk

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> Battery Restoration, Part 1 http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/battery-restoration-part-1.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/battery-restoration-part-1.html Wed, 30 Apr 2008 00:00:00 -0500 A big downside is that most batteries have a limited lifespan and although replacing some is relatively inexpensive, replacing others can be a big blow to our personal economics. Thus anything we can do to reduce that blow is something that deserves our attention. That is the reason for this article.
The subject is such that I divided it in several parts. The first part is dedicated to the lead-acid battery restoration. They are the most broadly used rechargeable batteries today and replacing them has become quite expensive due to the constantly rising cost of the lead and lately the sulfuric acid. We find these types of batteries in our cars, electric cars, golf cars, trucks, motorcycles, airplanes, boats, forklifts, solar systems etc.
Now, to bring an easier understanding about how to restore a battery, we are going to start by explaining simply and briefly about what a battery is, how it works and why it fails.
Let's start by defining what a battery is; in general a battery is a device in which chemical energy is transformed into electrical energy. For practical reasons batteries are classified in two types: a "primary battery", when the battery can only be use once (disposable) because the chemical reaction that happens inside is not reversible by simple means and the "secondary battery", when the chemical reaction can be reversed by applying electrical energy to the battery (rechargeable). This reverse reaction capability is what enables the batteries to be reused as storage devices.
How Does a Battery Work and why batteries fail?
The simplest batteries, better call cells, are composed of two lead plates, one charged positive (lead oxide) and one charged negative (lead), with a chemical solution between them, generally a watery solution of sulfuric acid. The most complex ones have a larger number of cells but the basic principle is the same.
Batteries produce a direct current (DC); it always flows in the same direction. When you use a battery (discharge) the chemical reaction is releasing electric energy through the negative terminal. The reaction of the lead and lead oxide with the sulfuric acid produce lead sulfate, water and releases electric energy (electrons). If you discharge the battery too much you will have mostly water and lead sulfate that in such conditions tends to crystallize.
When you charge a battery, you put electrons (electric energy) into the battery through the negative terminal, that energy activates the lead sulfate breaking it into lead and lead oxide and sulfuric acid. That causes a chemical reaction which stores electricity.
The electric current is produced by the presence of a surplus of electrons from the negative plate that flow toward the positive plate that has a deficiency of electrons via the sulfuric acid.
In summary the chemical reaction which stores electricity in the battery involves transformation of lead sulfate in an aqueous environment into the lead on the negative plate, and the lead oxide on the positive plate, and an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid. Conversely, when the battery is used (discharged) the interaction of the lead and lead oxide with the sulfuric acid produces, lead sulfate, water and electric energy (electrons). These reactions work in both directions.
There is one tragic flaw! Lead can combine with sulfate in two different ways. The first, discussed above, is beneficial. The second way forms a crystal which does have very little or no capability to efficiently conduct electricity and cannot easily be converted back to lead or lead oxide. Every discharge leaves a fine layer of crystals on the plates which little by little reduce the available plate surface (battery's reaction area) and consequently the battery's potential to store and release electricity. As a wider and thicker area is covered with this lead sulfate crystal, the battery loses power until it is not longer worth using.
What can be done about it? How to restore a Battery?
Before covering what things can be done to restore a battery I find necessary to clarify a bit further about two divisions on the types of lead-acid batteries. The Deep Batteries and Starting Batteries, each has their own peculiarities and applications.
Starting batteries are the ones used in Automobiles; these batteries have generally many thin plates. They make the battery capable of providing as much current as it is possible in a relatively small unit. This kind of batteries is designed to be drained small amounts before they are charged again.
Deep-cycle lead acid batteries have thicker plates to aid durability, they resist more deep discharge cycles than the starting ones. Deep batteries are used in Golf carts, electric cars, are recommended for solar systems, etc. A deep cycle battery is designed to provide a moderate amount of current for a long period of time.
If they were athletes the starter battery would be a sprinter and the deep battery a marathon runner.
Car batteries are not designed to deep discharge. When you do deep discharging, active material on the plates is dropped. If you have thin plates very soon you will have holes in the plates and permanent reduction of the plate surface, consequently reduced current output and storage.
Now that we have clarified all this data on the next part we are going to go over the most common methods of battery reconditioning.

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The Battery Life Saver electronic device, rejuventates "dead" batteries, maintains working batteries, and prevents build-up of Lead Sulfate, extending battery life.



Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]> Energy Management: A guide to four of the UK's most inefficient public buildings http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/energy-management-a-guide-to-four-of-the-uk.html http://www.articletrader.com/science/environment/energy-management-a-guide-to-four-of-the-uk.html Wed, 23 Sep 2009 04:05:40 -0500 energy management becoming an increasingly discussed and important aspect of the upkeep of public buildings, the largest must now show Display Energy Certificates so every visitor is aware of their efficiency (or inefficiency). What follows is a short guide to four surprising energy inefficient public buildings.

1. British Library
The British Library in London is responsible for 15,142 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions every year - and is listed at number 72 by the Department of Communities and Local Government. In a list where the top 100 is dominated by hospitals and universities, it is perhaps surprising that a building where silence and offline media are its primary assets can produce so much CO2. Yet, when one considers its 388 miles of shelving to maintain, as well as its amount of digital content then one can begin to understand where a lot of its emissions must come from.

2. Open University
Perhaps it is the online power of the Open University - one of the UK's most prestigious higher education institutions - that is its downfall when it comes to energy efficiency. The OU is ranked at 106 and is responsible for 12,626 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions a year - yet, for a university which is continually becoming more digital this isn't really surprising. However, for a university that its students don't physically attend it perhaps is. The University of Manchester and University of Bristol both produce more CO2, mind.

3. Met Office
The Met Office located in Exeter, Devon is perhaps even more surprising - and has already been the subject of a few press articles. Ranked at 103 and with 12,701 tonnes of carbon dioxide produced yearly, it is the simple fact that the institution which is at the forefront of knowing the degree of damage bad energy efficiency is doing to our planet, which is fairly shocking. Intriguingly though, the simple matter of computer power is the reason here - and the Met Office is famous for its super-computational power. Today the Met's IBM Power6 is capable of calculating 140 trillion floating point operations a second.

4. University of Manchester
I couldn't really finish this article without pointing to the building that holds the coveted number one spot in the Department of Communities and Local Government rankings. That place goes to the University of Manchester (Oxford Road Campus) with an astonishing 51,601 tonnes of CO2 emissions each year. The University of Manchester is the biggest single site university in the UK and the Oxford Road probably its busiest campus. It caters for 40,000 students and includes the Manchester Museum.


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Sarah Maple writes about renewable energy and solar hot water. The Green Project has been set up to give you and your community the best advice and recommendations on ways to make your home more energy efficient to reduce energy costs and greenhouse gas emissions.

Source: http://www.articletrader.com ]]>